APOBEC3D

Summary

APOBEC3D (apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme catalytic subunit 3D, HGNC:17354) is a protein-coding gene on chromosome 22q13.1, encoding DNA dC->dU-editing enzyme APOBEC-3D (Q96AK3). DNA deaminase (cytidine deaminase) which acts as an inhibitor of retrovirus replication and retrotransposon mobility via deaminase-dependent and -independent mechanisms.

This gene is a member of the cytidine deaminase gene family. It is one of a group of related genes found in a cluster, thought to result from gene duplication, on chromosome 22. Members of the cluster encode proteins that are structurally and functionally related to the C to U RNA-editing cytidine deaminase APOBEC1 and inhibit retroviruses, such as HIV, by deaminating cytosine residues in nascent retroviral cDNA.

Source: NCBI Gene 140564 — RefSeq curated summary.

At a glance

• Clinical variants (ClinVar): 88 total
• MANE Select transcript: NM_152426

Identifiers

Gene identifiers

Field	Value
HGNC ID	HGNC:17354
Approved symbol	APOBEC3D
Name	apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme catalytic subunit 3D
Location	22q13.1
Locus type	gene with protein product
Status	Approved
Aliases	ARP6, APOBEC3DE
Ensembl gene	ENSG00000243811
Ensembl biotype	protein_coding
OMIM	609900
Entrez	140564

Gene structure

Transcript identifiers

Ensembl transcripts: 5 — 5 protein_coding

ENST00000216099, ENST00000427494, ENST00000622217, ENST00000891546, ENST00000951685

RefSeq mRNA: 2 — MANE Select: NM_152426 NM_001363781, NM_152426

CCDS: CCDS46709, CCDS87027

Canonical transcript exons

ENST00000216099 — 7 exons

Exon	Start	End
ENSE00001818616	39032198	39033277
ENSE00003802893	39022822	39023014
ENSE00003806082	39025557	39025671
ENSE00003806668	39025070	39025349
ENSE00003807212	39029363	39029519
ENSE00003810546	39031694	39031973
ENSE00003842488	39021127	39021536

Expression profiles

Bgee: expression breadth ubiquitous, 132 present calls, max score 89.13.

FANTOM5 (CAGE): breadth broad, TPM avg 0.5507 / max 14.7425, expressed in 288 samples.

FANTOM5 promoters (1 alternative TSS)

Promoter ID	TPM avg	Samples expressed
192304	0.5507	288

Top tissues by expression

135 total, by Bgee expression score (0-100, higher = more expressed):

Tissue	Anatomy ID	Expression score	Quality
granulocyte	CL:0000094	89.13	gold quality
lymph node	UBERON:0000029	84.49	gold quality
spleen	UBERON:0002106	80.10	gold quality
bone marrow cell	CL:0002092	79.21	gold quality
blood	UBERON:0000178	78.86	gold quality
vermiform appendix	UBERON:0001154	78.72	gold quality
leukocyte	CL:0000738	75.16	gold quality
right uterine tube	UBERON:0001302	74.99	gold quality
monocyte	CL:0000576	74.24	gold quality
bone marrow	UBERON:0002371	73.53	gold quality
gall bladder	UBERON:0002110	73.33	gold quality
rectum	UBERON:0001052	72.81	gold quality
tonsil	UBERON:0002372	72.80	gold quality
duodenum	UBERON:0002114	72.05	gold quality
stromal cell of endometrium	CL:0002255	72.04	gold quality
colonic epithelium	UBERON:0000397	71.63	gold quality
small intestine Peyer’s patch	UBERON:0003454	71.45	gold quality
small intestine	UBERON:0002108	71.17	gold quality
right ovary	UBERON:0002118	71.17	gold quality
right adrenal gland cortex	UBERON:0035827	71.17	gold quality
fallopian tube	UBERON:0003889	71.02	gold quality
smooth muscle tissue	UBERON:0001135	70.45	gold quality
ovary	UBERON:0000992	70.38	gold quality
endocervix	UBERON:0000458	70.01	gold quality
left ovary	UBERON:0002119	69.95	gold quality
uterine cervix	UBERON:0000002	69.65	gold quality
mucosa of transverse colon	UBERON:0004991	69.52	gold quality
right adrenal gland	UBERON:0001233	69.46	gold quality
left adrenal gland	UBERON:0001234	69.30	gold quality
placenta	UBERON:0001987	69.22	gold quality

Single-cell (SCXA)

Detected in 2 experiment(s), a significant marker in 0.

Experiment	Marker?	Max mean expression
E-MTAB-6058	no	31.93
E-ANND-3	no	1.73

Regulation

Is transcription factor: no

miRNA regulators (miRDB)

44 targeting APOBEC3D, top 30 by miRDB confidence (max_score; target_count = how many genes the miRNA targets in total — lower means more specific):

miRNA	Max score	Avg score	miRNA target_count
HSA-MIR-3613-3P	100.00	76.36	7965
HSA-MIR-4283	100.00	66.42	2097
HSA-MIR-371B-5P	99.99	75.34	4759
HSA-MIR-373-5P	99.98	75.36	4753
HSA-MIR-616-5P	99.98	75.58	4775
HSA-MIR-6825-5P	99.96	69.81	3431
HSA-MIR-3119	99.92	71.34	2390
HSA-MIR-4731-5P	99.89	67.23	2537
HSA-MIR-4658	99.77	64.94	514
HSA-MIR-6790-5P	99.77	65.24	505
HSA-MIR-3150A-3P	99.76	64.44	1640
HSA-MIR-6763-5P	99.76	64.68	1767
HSA-MIR-4524A-3P	99.72	66.85	2406
HSA-MIR-3175	99.65	66.30	2031
HSA-MIR-6134	99.63	65.68	1537
HSA-MIR-4437	99.52	65.29	1266
HSA-MIR-6731-5P	99.28	67.42	2375
HSA-MIR-8085	99.28	67.56	2362
HSA-MIR-371A-5P	99.08	66.51	1914
HSA-MIR-328-5P	99.08	64.65	1000
HSA-MIR-6749-3P	99.00	65.73	1443
HSA-MIR-367-5P	98.84	67.18	902
HSA-MIR-887-5P	98.82	65.90	1347
HSA-MIR-5197-3P	98.71	67.05	1905
HSA-MIR-6885-5P	98.71	64.33	902
HSA-MIR-5008-5P	98.42	65.87	1019
HSA-MIR-3130-5P	98.14	66.00	711
HSA-MIR-340-3P	98.11	68.25	679
HSA-MIR-6827-3P	98.08	72.27	651
HSA-MIR-30C-1-3P	97.80	66.36	1499

Literature-anchored findings (GeneRIF, showing 10)

• Distinct determinants in HIV-1 Vif and human APOBEC3 proteins are required for the suppression of diverse host anti-viral proteins. (PMID:19088851)
• endogenous levels of APOBEC3D, APOBEC3F, and APOBEC3G combine to restrict Vif-deficient HIV-1 and cause the hallmark dinucleotide hypermutation patterns in in the nonpermissive T cell line CEM2n (PMID:22807680)
• The authors conclude that APOBEC3G exerts a greater restriction effect on HIV-1 than APOBEC3F and APOBEC3DE. (PMID:23097438)
• We found that two common novel polymorphisms in APOBEC3D decrease antiviral activity against HIV-1, and one polymorphism decreases activity against Alu retrotransposons in the human population. (PMID:23755966)
• APOBEC3 deaminases upregulated by IFN-beta induce E2 hypermutation of HPV16 in cervical keratinocytes. (PMID:24227842)
• APOBEC3D/F and APOBEC3G fundamentally work as restriction factors against HIV-1 in vivo (PMID:25330146)
• APOBEC3DE binds to itself, APOBEC3F, and APOBEC3G and antagonizes APOBEC3F and, to a lesser extent, APOBEC3G restriction of hepatitis B virus replication. (PMID:27289067)
• APOBEC3DE inhibits human LINE-1 retrotransposition. (PMID:27428332)
• These results indicate that APOBEC3 proteins can be copackaged and can comutate the same genomes, and can cooperate to inhibit HIV replication. (PMID:27439715)
• Alternative splicing of APOBEC3D generates functional diversity and its role as a DNA mutator. (PMID:32533515)

Cross-species orthologs

0 orthologs

Paralogs (9): APOBEC3H (ENSG00000100298), APOBEC1 (ENSG00000111701), AICDA (ENSG00000111732), APOBEC2 (ENSG00000124701), APOBEC3A (ENSG00000128383), APOBEC3F (ENSG00000128394), APOBEC3B (ENSG00000179750), APOBEC3G (ENSG00000239713), APOBEC3C (ENSG00000244509)

Protein

Protein identifiers

DNA dC->dU-editing enzyme APOBEC-3D — Q96AK3 (reviewed: Q96AK3)

All UniProt accessions (4): A0A087WX48, B2CML4, Q96AK3, Q6ICH2

UniProt curated annotations — full annotation on UniProt →

Function. DNA deaminase (cytidine deaminase) which acts as an inhibitor of retrovirus replication and retrotransposon mobility via deaminase-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Exhibits antiviral activity against HIV-1. After the penetration of retroviral nucleocapsids into target cells of infection and the initiation of reverse transcription, it can induce the conversion of cytosine to uracil in the minus-sense single-strand viral DNA, leading to G-to-A hypermutations in the subsequent plus-strand viral DNA. The resultant detrimental levels of mutations in the proviral genome, along with a deamination-independent mechanism that works prior to the proviral integration, together exert efficient antiretroviral effects in infected target cells. Selectively targets single-stranded DNA and does not deaminate double-stranded DNA or single- or double-stranded RNA. Also inhibits the mobility of LTR and non-LTR retrotransposons. (Microbial infection) Enhances hepatitis B virus/HBV replication by excluding restriction factors APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G from HBV capsids.

Subunit / interactions. Can form homo- and heterodimers with APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G. Interacts with L1RE1; this interaction inhibits LINE-1 retrotransposition. (Microbial infection) Interacts with HIV-1 Vif. This interaction triggers APOBEC3D polyubiquitylation and degradation by the 26S proteasome.

Subcellular location. Cytoplasm. P-body.

Tissue specificity. Expressed in lymphoid organs. Also detected in non-lymphoid tissues including lung.

Activity regulation. (Microbial infection) Antiviral activity is neutralized by the HIV-1 virion infectivity factor (Vif), that prevents its incorporation into progeny virions by both inhibiting its translation and/or by inducing its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation by the 26S proteasome.

Domain organisation. The CMP/dCMP deaminase domain 1 mediates RNA binding, RNA-dependent oligomerization and virion incorporation whereas the CMP/dCMP deaminase domain 2 confers deoxycytidine deaminase activity and substrate sequence specificity.

Miscellaneous. It is one of seven related genes or pseudogenes found in a cluster, thought to result from gene duplication, on chromosome 22.

Similarity. Belongs to the cytidine and deoxycytidylate deaminase family.

RefSeq proteins (2): NP_001350710, NP_689639* (*=MANE)

Domains & families (InterPro)

ID	Name	Type
IPR002125	CMP_dCMP_dom	Domain
IPR016192	APOBEC/CMP_deaminase_Zn-bd	Binding_site
IPR016193	Cytidine_deaminase-like	Homologous_superfamily
IPR050610	APOBEC_Cyt_Deaminase	Family

Pfam: PF18782

Enzyme classification (BRENDA):

• EC 3.5.4.38 — single-stranded DNA cytosine deaminase (BRENDA: 8 organisms, 58 substrates, 4 inhibitors, 11 Km, 10 kcat entries)

Substrate kinetics (BRENDA)

2 substrates with measured Km, best-characterized 2. Km ranges are aggregated across organisms/conditions.

Substrate	Km (mM)	Measurements
CCCA	0.001–0.073	5
TTCA	0.001–0.019	5

Catalyzed reactions (Rhea), 1 shown:

• a 2’-deoxycytidine in single-stranded DNA + H2O + H(+) = a 2’-deoxyuridine in single-stranded DNA + NH4(+) (RHEA:50948)

UniProt features (23 total): mutagenesis site 13, binding site 6, domain 2, chain 1, active site 1

Structure

Experimental structures (PDB)

0 structures.

Predicted structure (AlphaFold)

Model	pLDDT	Fraction very-high
AF-Q96AK3-F1	87.72	0.64

Functional residue map

Curated UniProt residues grouped by drug-discovery relevance — catalytic, ligand-binding, modification, and mutation-validated positions. Source: UniProtKB sequence features.

Catalytic / active sites (1): 264 (proton donor)

Ligand- & substrate-binding residues (6): 78; 109; 112; 262; 293; 296

Mutagenesis-validated functional residues (13):

Position	Phenotype
140	about two-third loss of anti hiv-1 activity.
264	no effect on vif binding.
268	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.
271	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.
272	resistant to hiv-1 vif and reduces vif binding.
275–276	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.
277	resistant to hiv-1 vif and reduces vif binding.
282	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.
302	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.
303	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.
307	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.
337	resistant to hiv-1 vif and reduces vif binding.
337	resistant to hiv-1 vif and abolishes vif binding.

Function

Pathways and Gene Ontology

Reactome pathways

0 pathways

MSigDB gene sets: 76 (showing top): GOBP_NEGATIVE_REGULATION_OF_VIRAL_PROCESS, GOBP_DNA_MODIFICATION, GOBP_DEFENSE_RESPONSE_TO_OTHER_ORGANISM, GOBP_RNA_MODIFICATION, GOBP_VIRAL_GENOME_REPLICATION, GOBP_VIRAL_LIFE_CYCLE, DOUGLAS_BMI1_TARGETS_DN, GOBP_DEFENSE_RESPONSE_TO_VIRUS, GOBP_REGULATION_OF_VIRAL_GENOME_REPLICATION, GOBP_NEGATIVE_REGULATION_OF_VIRAL_GENOME_REPLICATION, GOBP_RESPONSE_TO_VIRUS, GOCC_RIBONUCLEOPROTEIN_GRANULE, chr22q13, GOBP_DNA_METABOLIC_PROCESS, GOMF_HYDROLASE_ACTIVITY_ACTING_ON_CARBON_NITROGEN_BUT_NOT_PEPTIDE_BONDS_IN_CYCLIC_AMIDINES

GO Biological Process (9): cytidine to uridine editing (GO:0016554), clearance of foreign intracellular DNA (GO:0044355), innate immune response (GO:0045087), negative regulation of single stranded viral RNA replication via double stranded DNA intermediate (GO:0045869), defense response to virus (GO:0051607), DNA cytosine deamination (GO:0070383), immune system process (GO:0002376), negative regulation of macromolecule biosynthetic process (GO:0010558), defense response to symbiont (GO:0140546)

GO Molecular Function (6): RNA binding (GO:0003723), cytidine deaminase activity (GO:0004126), zinc ion binding (GO:0008270), catalytic activity (GO:0003824), hydrolase activity (GO:0016787), metal ion binding (GO:0046872)

GO Cellular Component (3): P-body (GO:0000932), nucleus (GO:0005634), cytoplasm (GO:0005737)

GO top-level categories

Rollup of top GO terms by namespace:

Category	Terms
base conversion or substitution editing	1
clearance of foreign intracellular nucleic acids	1
immune response	1
defense response to symbiont	1
single stranded viral RNA replication via double stranded DNA intermediate	1
negative regulation of viral genome replication	1
regulation of single stranded viral RNA replication via double stranded DNA intermediate	1
negative regulation of RNA biosynthetic process	1
defense response	1
response to virus	1
DNA deamination	1
biological_process	1
macromolecule biosynthetic process	1
negative regulation of biosynthetic process	1
regulation of macromolecule biosynthetic process	1
negative regulation of macromolecule metabolic process	1
defense response to other organism	1
nucleic acid binding	1
hydrolase activity, acting on carbon-nitrogen (but not peptide) bonds, in cyclic amidines	1
deaminase activity	1
transition metal ion binding	1
molecular_function	1
catalytic activity	1
cation binding	1
cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein granule	1
intracellular membrane-bounded organelle	1
intracellular anatomical structure	1
cellular anatomical structure	1

Protein interactions and networks

STRING

940 interactions, top by confidence (×1000):

Protein A	Protein B	Partner UniProt	Score
APOBEC3D	CDA	P32320	866
APOBEC3D	APOBEC4	Q8WW27	819
APOBEC3D	CBFB	Q13951	624
APOBEC3D	CUL5	Q93034	600
APOBEC3D	TRIM5	Q9C035	554
APOBEC3D	ELOB	Q15370	543
APOBEC3D	SAMHD1	Q9Y3Z3	492
APOBEC3D	APOB	P04114	490
APOBEC3D	BST2	Q10589	487
APOBEC3D	UNG	P13051	481
APOBEC3D	RNF7	Q9UBF6	481
APOBEC3D	ELOC	Q15369	465
APOBEC3D	IL17C	Q9P0M4	396
APOBEC3D	ADAR	P55265	378
APOBEC3D	A1CF	Q9NQ94	373

IntAct

8 interactions, top by confidence:

A	B	Type	Score
Brwd3	WDR91	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.350
Gtf3c4	YTHDC1	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.350
Mecom	ESYT2	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.350
APOBEC3D	IGF2BP3	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.350
N	RBM47	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.350
GATA2	EFCAB5	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.350

ESM2 similar proteins: A2VDP6, A9QA56, G1SRW8, P0C7P3, P31941, P60704, P60705, Q08AF3, Q19Q52, Q1WBT4, Q2PT36, Q3SYR3, Q4VDN5, Q5RCA5, Q5XI89, Q68D06, Q694B4, Q694B5, Q694B6, Q694B7, Q694B8, Q694B9, Q694C0, Q694C1, Q694C2, Q694C4, Q694C5, Q6NTF7, Q75W64, Q7YR23, Q7YR24, Q7YR25, Q7Z7L1, Q8IUX4, Q8IXQ6, Q969Y0, Q96AK3, Q99J72, Q9BQQ7, Q9GZX7

Diamond homologs: A9QA56, P31941, P47855, P60704, P60705, Q19Q52, Q1WBT4, Q2PT36, Q3SYR3, Q4VDN5, Q694B4, Q694B5, Q694B6, Q694B7, Q694B8, Q694B9, Q694C0, Q694C1, Q694C2, Q694C4, Q694C5, Q6NTF7, Q75W64, Q7YR23, Q7YR24, Q7YR25, Q8IUX4, Q96AK3, Q99J72, Q9EQP0, Q9GZX7, Q9HC16, Q9NRW3, Q9UH17, Q9WV35, Q9WVE0, Q9Y235, P38483, P41238, P51908

SIGNOR signaling

1 interactions.

A	Effect	B	Mechanism
APOBEC3D	up-regulates	“Clearance_of_foreign intracellular_DNA”

Disease & clinical

Clinical variants and AI predictions

ClinVar

88 variants total. Per-class counts are floors (≥ shown; pagination cap):

Classification	Count (floor)
Pathogenic	0
Likely pathogenic	0
Uncertain significance	69
Likely benign	4
Benign	0

Top pathogenic / likely-pathogenic (0)

SpliceAI

949 predictions. Top by Δscore:

Variant	Effect	Δscore
22:39023011:GGAG:G	donor_gain	1.0000
22:39023012:G:GT	donor_gain	1.0000
22:39032195:CAG:C	acceptor_loss	1.0000
22:39032196:A:AG	acceptor_gain	1.0000
22:39032196:A:T	acceptor_loss	1.0000
22:39032197:G:GA	acceptor_gain	1.0000
22:39032197:GATT:G	acceptor_gain	1.0000
22:39023015:GT:G	donor_loss	0.9900
22:39023016:TAA:T	donor_loss	0.9900
22:39031770:C:G	acceptor_gain	0.9900
22:39031940:G:GT	donor_gain	0.9900
22:39031973:GGTG:G	donor_loss	0.9900
22:39031974:G:GA	donor_loss	0.9900
22:39031975:T:A	donor_loss	0.9900
22:39032197:GA:G	acceptor_gain	0.9900
22:39032197:GAT:G	acceptor_gain	0.9900
22:39032197:GATTT:G	acceptor_gain	0.9900
22:39022813:T:TA	acceptor_gain	0.9800
22:39022820:A:AG	acceptor_gain	0.9800
22:39022821:G:GG	acceptor_gain	0.9800
22:39022916:G:GT	donor_gain	0.9800
22:39023012:GAG:G	donor_gain	0.9800
22:39023015:G:GG	donor_gain	0.9800
22:39029409:A:AG	acceptor_gain	0.9800
22:39029410:A:G	acceptor_gain	0.9800
22:39031774:CTACG:C	acceptor_gain	0.9800
22:39031974:G:GG	donor_gain	0.9800
22:39022821:GA:G	acceptor_gain	0.9700
22:39022994:C:A	donor_gain	0.9700
22:39025123:T:TA	acceptor_gain	0.9700

AlphaMissense

2578 scored. Top likely-pathogenic:

Variant	Protein change	am_pathogenicity
22:39022865:T:C	F21L	0.972
22:39022867:T:A	F21L	0.972
22:39022867:T:G	F21L	0.972
22:39025214:T:C	F119L	0.970
22:39025216:C:A	F119L	0.970
22:39025216:C:G	F119L	0.970
22:39029454:T:C	F233L	0.970
22:39029456:C:A	F233L	0.970
22:39029456:C:G	F233L	0.970
22:39025166:T:C	F103L	0.969
22:39025168:T:A	F103L	0.969
22:39025168:T:G	F103L	0.969
22:39031838:T:C	F303L	0.966
22:39031840:C:A	F303L	0.966
22:39031840:C:G	F303L	0.966
22:39022853:T:C	F17L	0.964
22:39022855:C:A	F17L	0.964
22:39022855:C:G	F17L	0.964
22:39029406:T:C	F217L	0.964
22:39029408:T:A	F217L	0.964
22:39029408:T:G	F217L	0.964
22:39025559:T:C	F165L	0.962
22:39025561:T:A	F165L	0.962
22:39025561:T:G	F165L	0.962
22:39029508:T:C	F251L	0.961
22:39029510:C:A	F251L	0.961
22:39029510:C:G	F251L	0.961
22:39025106:T:C	F83L	0.959
22:39025108:C:A	F83L	0.959
22:39025108:C:G	F83L	0.959

dbSNP variants (sampled 300 via entrez): RS1000336007 (22:39026238 C>T), RS1000485119 (22:39031060 G>A), RS1000951953 (22:39023185 A>G), RS1001185583 (22:39029491 TC>T), RS1001224052 (22:39032066 G>A,T), RS1001295741 (22:39023453 T>C), RS1001399987 (22:39025593 A>C), RS1001800557 (22:39020822 C>G), RS1001867103 (22:39029741 G>T), RS1002354832 (22:39022304 C>G), RS1002584405 (22:39020351 C>A,T), RS1002959925 (22:39032141 A>G), RS1003003154 (22:39020106 G>C), RS1003295276 (22:39033247 A>G), RS1003619991 (22:39033538 C>T)

Disease associations

OMIM: gene MIM:609900 | disease phenotypes:

GenCC curated gene-disease

Mondo (0):

Orphanet (0):

HPO phenotypes

0 total (0 of 0 shown, HPO-id order):

GWAS associations

0 associations (top):

Drugs & pharmacology

Drug and pharmacology data

Is drug target: no

PharmGKB: 1 entry (VIP=true, CPIC=false)

CTD chemical–gene interactions

17 total (human), top 17 by PubMed support.

Chemical	Actions (top 5)	PubMed papers
Benzo(a)pyrene	affects methylation, increases expression, increases methylation	3
triphenyl phosphate	affects expression	1
bisphenol A	decreases methylation	1
sodium arsenite	decreases expression, increases abundance	1
aflatoxin B2	decreases methylation	1
nickel sulfate	increases expression	1
Arsenic	decreases expression, increases abundance	1
Cisplatin	increases expression	1
Dactinomycin	increases expression	1
Silicon Dioxide	decreases expression	1
Smoke	decreases expression	1
Tobacco Smoke Pollution	decreases expression	1
Tretinoin	increases expression	1
Urethane	decreases expression	1
Valproic Acid	increases methylation	1
Copper Sulfate	increases expression	1
S-Nitrosoglutathione	increases expression	1

Clinical trials (associated diseases)

0 trials via MONDO — disease-level, not drug-specific.