MRPL41

Summary

MRPL41 (mitochondrial ribosomal protein L41, HGNC:14492) is a protein-coding gene on chromosome 9q34.3, encoding Large ribosomal subunit protein mL41 (Q8IXM3). Component of the mitochondrial ribosome large subunit. It is a selective cancer dependency (DepMap: 78.3% of cell lines).

Mammalian mitochondrial ribosomal proteins are encoded by nuclear genes and help in protein synthesis within the mitochondrion. Mitochondrial ribosomes (mitoribosomes) consist of a small 28S subunit and a large 39S subunit. They have an estimated 75% protein to rRNA composition compared to prokaryotic ribosomes, where this ratio is reversed. Another difference between mammalian mitoribosomes and prokaryotic ribosomes is that the latter contain a 5S rRNA. Among different species, the proteins comprising the mitoribosome differ greatly in sequence, and sometimes in biochemical properties, which prevents easy recognition by sequence homology. This gene encodes a 39S subunit protein that belongs to the YmL27 ribosomal protein family.

Source: NCBI Gene 64975 — RefSeq curated summary.

At a glance

• Clinical variants (ClinVar): 17 total
• Cancer dependency (DepMap): dependent in 78.3% of screened cell lines
• MANE Select transcript: NM_032477

Identifiers

Gene identifiers

Field	Value
HGNC ID	HGNC:14492
Approved symbol	MRPL41
Name	mitochondrial ribosomal protein L41
Location	9q34.3
Locus type	gene with protein product
Status	Approved
Aliases	MRP-L27, RPML27, BMRP, PIG3, MRPL27, mL41
Ensembl gene	ENSG00000182154
Ensembl biotype	protein_coding
OMIM	611846
Entrez	64975

Gene structure

Transcript identifiers

Ensembl transcripts: 1 — 1 protein_coding

ENST00000371443

RefSeq mRNA: 1 — MANE Select: NM_032477 NM_032477

CCDS: CCDS7046

Canonical transcript exons

ENST00000371443 — 2 exons

Exon	Start	End
ENSE00001455236	137552074	137552555
ENSE00001455237	137551879	137551978

Expression profiles

Bgee: expression breadth ubiquitous, 256 present calls, max score 99.55.

FANTOM5 (CAGE): breadth ubiquitous, TPM avg 62.6359 / max 371.1834, expressed in 1820 samples.

FANTOM5 promoters (1 alternative TSS)

Promoter ID	TPM avg	Samples expressed
99699	62.6359	1820

Top tissues by expression

256 total, by Bgee expression score (0-100, higher = more expressed):

Tissue	Anatomy ID	Expression score	Quality
apex of heart	UBERON:0002098	99.55	gold quality
left ventricle myocardium	UBERON:0006566	99.37	gold quality
heart left ventricle	UBERON:0002084	99.24	gold quality
cardiac ventricle	UBERON:0002082	99.23	gold quality
right atrium auricular region	UBERON:0006631	99.19	gold quality
heart right ventricle	UBERON:0002080	99.15	gold quality
cardiac atrium	UBERON:0002081	99.15	gold quality
mucosa of transverse colon	UBERON:0004991	99.12	gold quality
anterior cingulate cortex	UBERON:0009835	98.99	gold quality
myocardium	UBERON:0002349	98.97	gold quality
caudate nucleus	UBERON:0001873	98.95	gold quality
putamen	UBERON:0001874	98.94	gold quality
hindlimb stylopod muscle	UBERON:0004252	98.92	gold quality
Brodmann (1909) area 9	UBERON:0013540	98.91	gold quality
right frontal lobe	UBERON:0002810	98.88	gold quality
cardiac muscle of right atrium	UBERON:0003379	98.82	gold quality
amygdala	UBERON:0001876	98.80	gold quality
nucleus accumbens	UBERON:0001882	98.80	gold quality
gastrocnemius	UBERON:0001388	98.70	gold quality
tibialis anterior	UBERON:0001385	98.63	gold quality
right lobe of liver	UBERON:0001114	98.47	gold quality
heart	UBERON:0000948	98.44	gold quality
hypothalamus	UBERON:0001898	98.36	gold quality
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	UBERON:0009834	98.30	gold quality
body of stomach	UBERON:0001161	98.21	gold quality
olfactory segment of nasal mucosa	UBERON:0005386	98.12	gold quality
quadriceps femoris	UBERON:0001377	98.10	gold quality
C1 segment of cervical spinal cord	UBERON:0006469	98.06	gold quality
muscle of leg	UBERON:0001383	98.05	gold quality
left adrenal gland cortex	UBERON:0035825	98.03	gold quality

Single-cell (SCXA)

Detected in 3 experiment(s), a significant marker in 2.

Experiment	Marker?	Max mean expression
E-MTAB-6819	yes	207.19
E-ANND-3	yes	15.91
E-MTAB-8559	no	680.00

Regulation

Is transcription factor: no

Upstream regulators (CollecTRI, top): DNMT1, ESR1, EZH2, LITAF, SSRP1, TP53, TP63, TP73, ZNF699

Functional genomics

DepMap (CRISPR cell-line fitness): dependent in 78.3% of screened cell lines.

Literature-anchored findings (GeneRIF, showing 6)

• BMRP is a mitochondrial ribosomal protein involved in the regulation of cell death by apoptosis, probably affecting pathways mediated by Bcl-2 and caspases. (PMID:15547950)
• mitochondrial ribosomal protein L41 (MRPL41) is localized in the mitochondria, stabilizes the p53 protein, and enhances its translocation to the mitochondria, thereby inducing apoptosis. (PMID:16024796)
• Overall, these results suggest that MRPL41 arrests the cell cycle by increasing the p21(WAF1/CIP1) and p27(Kip1) levels under the growth inhibitory conditions. (PMID:16256947)
• region of BMRP required for the interaction with Bcl-2 is very relevant for the cell death-inducing activity of the protein (PMID:21253851)
• Apoptosis-inducing ability of wild-type BMRP is blocked by Bcl-2 through several mechanisms. (PMID:22711503)
• Nuclear-encoded mitochondrial MTO1 and MRPL41 are regulated in an opposite epigenetic mode based on estrogen receptor status in breast cancer. (PMID:24160266)

Cross-species orthologs

6 orthologs

Organism	Symbol	Gene ID
danio_rerio	mrpl41	ENSDARG00000002264
mus_musculus	Mrpl41	ENSMUSG00000036850
rattus_norvegicus	Mrpl41l1	ENSRNOG00000034128
rattus_norvegicus	Mrpl41	ENSRNOG00000080840
drosophila_melanogaster	mRpL41	FBGN0034001
caenorhabditis_elegans		WBGENE00015185

Protein

Protein identifiers

Large ribosomal subunit protein mL41 — Q8IXM3 (reviewed: Q8IXM3)

Alternative names: 39S ribosomal protein L41, mitochondrial, Bcl-2-interacting mitochondrial ribosomal protein L41, Cell proliferation-inducing gene 3 protein, MRP-L27 homolog

All UniProt accessions (1): Q8IXM3

UniProt curated annotations — full annotation on UniProt →

Function. Component of the mitochondrial ribosome large subunit. Also involved in apoptosis and cell cycle. Enhances p53/TP53 stability, thereby contributing to p53/TP53-induced apoptosis in response to growth-inhibitory condition. Enhances p53/TP53 translocation to the mitochondria. Has the ability to arrest the cell cycle at the G1 phase, possibly by stabilizing the CDKN1A and CDKN1B (p27Kip1) proteins.

Subunit / interactions. Component of the mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit (mt-LSU). Mature mammalian 55S mitochondrial ribosomes consist of a small (28S) and a large (39S) subunit. The 28S small subunit contains a 12S ribosomal RNA (12S mt-rRNA) and 30 different proteins. The 39S large subunit contains a 16S rRNA (16S mt-rRNA), a copy of mitochondrial valine transfer RNA (mt-tRNA(Val)), which plays an integral structural role, and 52 different proteins. Interacts with BCL2.

Subcellular location. Mitochondrion.

Tissue specificity. Present in kidney, liver, thymus and testis, and at lower level in brain and spleen (at protein level).

Similarity. Belongs to the mitochondrion-specific ribosomal protein mL41 family.

RefSeq proteins (1): NP_115866* (*=MANE)

Domains & families (InterPro)

ID	Name	Type
IPR019189	Ribosomal_mL41	Family

Pfam: PF09809

UniProt features (15 total): helix 6, strand 5, turn 2, transit peptide 1, chain 1

Structure

Experimental structures (PDB)

85 structures, top 30 by resolution.

PDB	Method	Resolution (Å)
7OF0	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.2
7QI4	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.21
8RRI	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.4
8QU5	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.42
9OLF	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.46
7OF7	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.5
7PO4	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.56
6ZM6	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.59
7O9M	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.6
7OF6	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.6
9CN3	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.62
7QI5	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.63
7OF2	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.7
7OF3	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.7
7OF4	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.7
9PR4	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.77
9PRA	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.83
8ANY	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.85
6ZM5	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.89
7QH7	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.89
7ODR	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.9
7OF5	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.9
8K2A	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.9
8OIT	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.9
9PGL	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.9
9PGF	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.93
6VMI	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.96
6VLZ	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.97
7QI6	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.98
9PSM	ELECTRON MICROSCOPY	2.98

Predicted structure (AlphaFold)

Model	pLDDT	Fraction very-high
AF-Q8IXM3-F1	91.26	0.80

Function

Pathways and Gene Ontology

Reactome pathways

7 pathways

ID	Pathway
R-HSA-5368286	Mitochondrial translation initiation
R-HSA-5389840	Mitochondrial translation elongation
R-HSA-5419276	Mitochondrial translation termination
R-HSA-9937383	Mitochondrial ribosome-associated quality control
R-HSA-392499	Metabolism of proteins
R-HSA-5368287	Mitochondrial translation
R-HSA-72766	Translation

MSigDB gene sets: 273 (showing top): MODULE_255, RORA1_01, STARK_PREFRONTAL_CORTEX_22Q11_DELETION_DN, GOBP_MITOCHONDRIAL_TRANSLATION, MODULE_317, GOBP_TRANSLATION, WEI_MYCN_TARGETS_WITH_E_BOX, GOMF_STRUCTURAL_CONSTITUENT_OF_RIBOSOME, USF_01, KONDO_COLON_CANCER_HCP_WITH_H3K27ME1, GOCC_MITOCHONDRIAL_ENVELOPE, YAO_TEMPORAL_RESPONSE_TO_PROGESTERONE_CLUSTER_13, USF_02, WONG_MITOCHONDRIA_GENE_MODULE, RASHI_RESPONSE_TO_IONIZING_RADIATION_6

GO Biological Process (3): translation (GO:0006412), apoptotic process (GO:0006915), mitochondrial translation (GO:0032543)

GO Molecular Function (3): RNA binding (GO:0003723), structural constituent of ribosome (GO:0003735), protein binding (GO:0005515)

GO Cellular Component (5): mitochondrion (GO:0005739), mitochondrial inner membrane (GO:0005743), mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit (GO:0005762), ribonucleoprotein complex (GO:1990904), ribosome (GO:0005840)

Reactome top-level categories

Rollup of top-3 pathways:

Category	Pathways
Mitochondrial translation	4
Translation	1
Metabolism of proteins	1

GO top-level categories

Rollup of top GO terms by namespace:

Category	Terms
peptidyltransferase activity	1
translational initiation	1
translational elongation	1
translational termination	1
macromolecule biosynthetic process	1
protein metabolic process	1
protein biosynthetic process	1
programmed cell death	1
apoptotic signaling pathway	1
execution phase of apoptosis	1
mitochondrion	1
translation	1
mitochondrial gene expression	1
nucleic acid binding	1
structural molecule activity	1
ribosome	1
binding	1
cytoplasm	1
intracellular membrane-bounded organelle	1
organelle inner membrane	1
mitochondrial membrane	1
organellar large ribosomal subunit	1
mitochondrial ribosome	1
mitochondrial protein-containing complex	1
protein-containing complex	1
intracellular membraneless organelle	1

Protein interactions and networks

STRING

1917 interactions, top by confidence (×1000):

Protein A	Protein B	Partner UniProt	Score
MRPL41	DAP3	P51398	730
MRPL41	MRPL37	Q9BZE1	666
MRPL41	MRPS30	Q9NP92	635
MRPL41	MRPL11	Q9Y3B7	625
MRPL41	MRPL12	P52815	625
MRPL41	MRPS7	Q9Y2R9	623
MRPL41	MRPS23	Q9Y3D9	606
MRPL41	MRPL42	Q9Y6G3	585
MRPL41	MRPL20	Q9BYC9	548
MRPL41	MRPL34	Q9BQ48	529
MRPL41	MRPL19	P49406	511
MRPL41	MRPL13	Q9BYD1	495
MRPL41	PPP1R21	Q6ZMI0	489
MRPL41	A8MYK1	A8MYK1	475
MRPL41	MRPL23	Q16540	475

IntAct

145 interactions, top by confidence:

A	B	Type	Score
CFTR	ESYT2	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.710
MRPS30	GTPBP10	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.640
TMED8	MRPL41	psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association)	0.560
NP	KPNA6	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.550
KSR2	POLR3A	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL50	GTPBP10	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL10	ZZEF1	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL42	GATC	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL38	DUSP14	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL28	MRPL3	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL41	MRPL3	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL2	GTPBP10	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL13	GTPBP10	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL18	GTPBP10	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL27	MRPL33	psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association)	0.530
MRPL41	TRIM63	psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association)	0.510
TRIM63	MRPL41	psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association)	0.510
NDUFAB1	MIEF1	psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association)	0.490
SMURF2	MRPL41	psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association)	0.370

BioGRID (281): MRPL41 (Two-hybrid), MRPL41 (Two-hybrid), MRPL41 (Reconstituted Complex), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Co-fractionation), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS), MRPL41 (Affinity Capture-MS)

ESM2 similar proteins: A6ZR80, G1TTQ5, O45946, O94658, P0CU36, P39032, P40078, P45633, P47964, P49181, P49630, P82673, Q09533, Q2M0G4, Q2YDF6, Q39724, Q3T171, Q498P2, Q498Z6, Q4PM12, Q502B0, Q54J69, Q5A2Y7, Q5BJX1, Q5M818, Q5R7L3, Q5RAZ9, Q60P81, Q66KU4, Q6CNC5, Q6DER2, Q6DJI4, Q6INF3, Q6Q415, Q7SEK9, Q8BJZ4, Q8IXM3, Q8SR96, Q8UW19, Q90YT2

Diamond homologs: P90993, Q502B0, Q5BJX1, Q6DJI4, Q6INF3, Q8IXM3, Q9CQN7, Q291A0, Q7JZM8, P36526

SIGNOR signaling

1 interactions.

A	Effect	B	Mechanism
MRPL41	“form complex”	“39S mitochondrial large ribosomal subunit”	binding

Enriched among interaction partners

Reactome pathways and GO biological processes over-represented among this gene’s 132 IntAct physical interaction partners (hypergeometric vs the genome-wide background, BH-FDR, gene-set size 15–500, ranked by fold). A functional readout of the neighbourhood — distinct from this gene’s own memberships above, and biased toward well-studied / hub proteins, so read it as themes rather than proof.

Reactome pathways:

Pathway	Partners	Fold	FDR
Mitochondrial ribosome-associated quality control	35	45.2×	2e-48
Mitochondrial translation	31	44.9×	5e-43
Mitochondrial translation initiation	33	44.1×	2e-45
Mitochondrial translation elongation	33	44.1×	2e-45
Mitochondrial translation termination	33	38.1×	4e-43
Translation	34	22.2×	1e-35
Peptide chain elongation	7	9.3×	4e-04
Viral mRNA Translation	7	9.3×	4e-04

GO biological processes:

GO term	Partners	Fold	FDR
mitochondrial translation	35	54.8×	1e-50
translation	25	23.1×	5e-25
cytoplasmic translation	7	11.7×	4e-04

Disease & clinical

Clinical variants and AI predictions

ClinVar

17 variants total. Per-class counts are floors (≥ shown; pagination cap):

Classification	Count (floor)
Pathogenic	0
Likely pathogenic	0
Uncertain significance	17
Likely benign	0
Benign	0

Top pathogenic / likely-pathogenic (0)

SpliceAI

68 predictions. Top by Δscore:

Variant	Effect	Δscore
9:137551978:GGTG:G	donor_loss	0.9900
9:137551979:G:GA	donor_loss	0.9900
9:137551979:G:GG	donor_gain	0.9900
9:137551980:T:G	donor_loss	0.9900
9:137551974:TCC:T	donor_gain	0.9800
9:137552068:CCGCA:C	acceptor_loss	0.9700
9:137552069:CGCAG:C	acceptor_loss	0.9700
9:137552070:GCAGG:G	acceptor_loss	0.9700
9:137552071:CA:C	acceptor_loss	0.9700
9:137552072:A:C	acceptor_loss	0.9700
9:137552072:A:AG	acceptor_gain	0.9600
9:137552072:AG:A	acceptor_gain	0.9600
9:137552073:G:GG	acceptor_gain	0.9600
9:137552073:GG:G	acceptor_gain	0.9600
9:137552073:GGGC:G	acceptor_gain	0.9600
9:137551977:AG:A	donor_gain	0.9400
9:137551978:GG:G	donor_gain	0.9400
9:137551974:TCCAG:T	donor_gain	0.9000
9:137552072:AGG:A	acceptor_gain	0.9000
9:137552073:GGG:G	acceptor_gain	0.9000
9:137551917:TCG:T	donor_gain	0.8900
9:137552069:C:A	acceptor_gain	0.8700
9:137552072:AGGGC:A	acceptor_gain	0.8400
9:137552073:GGGCG:G	acceptor_gain	0.8400
9:137551975:CCAG:C	donor_gain	0.8300
9:137551976:CAG:C	donor_gain	0.7900
9:137552223:TGGAG:T	acceptor_gain	0.7500
9:137552224:GGAGG:G	acceptor_gain	0.7500
9:137551979:G:T	donor_gain	0.6800
9:137552225:GA:G	acceptor_gain	0.6300

AlphaMissense

893 scored. Top likely-pathogenic:

Variant	Protein change	am_pathogenicity
9:137552283:T:C	F68L	0.955
9:137552285:C:A	F68L	0.955
9:137552285:C:G	F68L	0.955
9:137552229:T:C	F50L	0.950
9:137552231:C:A	F50L	0.950
9:137552231:C:G	F50L	0.950
9:137552355:T:C	F92L	0.941
9:137552357:C:A	F92L	0.941
9:137552357:C:G	F92L	0.941
9:137552266:T:A	V62D	0.940
9:137552153:G:C	K24N	0.928
9:137552153:G:T	K24N	0.928
9:137552463:T:C	F128L	0.927
9:137552465:C:A	F128L	0.927
9:137552465:C:G	F128L	0.927
9:137552380:T:A	I100N	0.924
9:137552356:T:C	F92S	0.909
9:137552464:T:C	F128S	0.892
9:137552148:A:C	S23R	0.891
9:137552150:C:A	S23R	0.891
9:137552150:C:G	S23R	0.891
9:137552260:T:C	F60S	0.883
9:137552450:G:C	Q123H	0.881
9:137552450:G:T	Q123H	0.881
9:137552484:T:C	F135L	0.879
9:137552486:C:A	F135L	0.879
9:137552486:C:G	F135L	0.879
9:137552206:G:A	G42D	0.871
9:137552142:T:A	W21R	0.867
9:137552142:T:C	W21R	0.867

dbSNP variants (sampled 300 via entrez): RS1001177799 (9:137552474 C>G,T), RS1001462123 (9:137552775 G>T), RS1001966535 (9:137552735 G>A), RS1002828601 (9:137550686 A>G), RS1002896465 (9:137552895 A>G), RS1003162830 (9:137551728 C>A,G), RS1003229968 (9:137551606 G>A), RS1003639246 (9:137551453 A>G), RS1004526216 (9:137553049 G>A), RS1005025965 (9:137552823 A>G), RS1006298499 (9:137550254 G>C), RS1006659312 (9:137551216 G>A), RS1007990293 (9:137552006 C>T), RS1009487716 (9:137552910 G>A), RS1010088684 (9:137551735 G>A,C)

Disease associations

OMIM: gene MIM:611846 | disease phenotypes:

GenCC curated gene-disease

Mondo (0):

Orphanet (0):

HPO phenotypes

0 total (0 of 0 shown, HPO-id order):

GWAS associations

0 associations (top):

Drugs & pharmacology

Drug and pharmacology data

Is drug target: no

PharmGKB: 1 entry (VIP=true, CPIC=false)

CTD chemical–gene interactions

35 total (human), top 30 by PubMed support.

Chemical	Actions (top 5)	PubMed papers
Valproic Acid	affects expression, increases expression, increases methylation	5
Acetaminophen	affects cotreatment, decreases expression, increases expression	3
bisphenol A	affects expression, increases abundance, decreases methylation, affects cotreatment	2
sodium arsenite	increases expression, decreases expression	2
Particulate Matter	decreases expression, increases abundance, affects cotreatment, increases expression	2
aristolochic acid I	increases expression	1
bisphenol F	increases expression	1
ginger extract	affects cotreatment, affects expression, increases abundance	1
lead acetate	increases expression	1
arsenite	affects binding, increases reaction	1
4-(N-methyl-N-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone	affects cotreatment, increases expression, decreases reaction	1
pinosylvin	decreases expression	1
di-n-butylphosphoric acid	affects expression	1
CGP 52608	affects binding, increases reaction	1
corosolic acid	decreases expression	1
K 7174	decreases expression	1
bisphenol S	increases expression	1
Temozolomide	increases expression	1
Air Pollutants	increases abundance, decreases expression	1
Ethanol	increases abundance, increases expression, affects cotreatment	1
Atrazine	decreases expression	1
Benzo(a)pyrene	affects cotreatment, increases expression, decreases reaction	1
Catechin	affects cotreatment, decreases reaction, increases expression	1
Dactinomycin	affects localization, increases reaction, increases stability	1
Gasoline	affects cotreatment, increases abundance, increases expression	1
Lipopolysaccharides	affects cotreatment, decreases expression	1
Oils, Volatile	increases abundance, affects cotreatment, affects expression	1
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	increases abundance, increases expression, affects cotreatment	1
Ribonucleotides	affects binding	1
Smoke	decreases expression	1

Clinical trials (associated diseases)

0 trials via MONDO — disease-level, not drug-specific.