ZNF155
gene geneOn this page
Also known as pHZ-96
Summary
ZNF155 (zinc finger protein 155, HGNC:12940) is a protein-coding gene on chromosome 19q13.31, encoding Zinc finger protein 155 (Q12901). May be involved in transcriptional regulation.
Predicted to enable DNA-binding transcription factor activity. Predicted to be involved in regulation of DNA-templated transcription. Predicted to be located in nucleus.
Source: NCBI Gene 7711 — RefSeq curated summary.
At a glance
- Clinical variants (ClinVar): 86 total
- MANE Select transcript:
NM_198089
Identifiers
Gene identifiers
| Field | Value |
|---|---|
| HGNC ID | HGNC:12940 |
| Approved symbol | ZNF155 |
| Name | zinc finger protein 155 |
| Location | 19q13.31 |
| Locus type | gene with protein product |
| Status | Approved |
| Aliases | pHZ-96 |
| Ensembl gene | ENSG00000204920 |
| Ensembl biotype | protein_coding |
| OMIM | 604086 |
| Entrez | 7711 |
Gene structure
Transcript identifiers
Ensembl transcripts: 15 — 13 protein_coding, 2 retained_intron
ENST00000270014, ENST00000407951, ENST00000586454, ENST00000587302, ENST00000588531, ENST00000590411, ENST00000590615, ENST00000591532, ENST00000611002, ENST00000851203, ENST00000851204, ENST00000851205, ENST00000932768, ENST00000968381, ENST00000968382
RefSeq mRNA: 5 — MANE Select: NM_198089
NM_001260486, NM_001260487, NM_001260488, NM_003445, NM_198089
CCDS: CCDS12634, CCDS58668
Canonical transcript exons
ENST00000270014 — 5 exons
| Exon | Start | End |
|---|---|---|
| ENSE00002487188 | 43991842 | 43991934 |
| ENSE00002516458 | 43991548 | 43991674 |
| ENSE00002802234 | 43984188 | 43984245 |
| ENSE00003546200 | 43988459 | 43988558 |
| ENSE00003842492 | 43996093 | 43998326 |
Expression profiles
Bgee: expression breadth ubiquitous, 201 present calls, max score 94.33.
FANTOM5 (CAGE): breadth ubiquitous, TPM avg 4.2060 / max 91.0908, expressed in 1544 samples.
FANTOM5 promoters (2 alternative TSS)
| Promoter ID | TPM avg | Samples expressed |
|---|---|---|
| 176238 | 4.1677 | 1544 |
| 176239 | 0.0383 | 11 |
Top tissues by expression
266 total, by Bgee expression score (0-100, higher = more expressed):
| Tissue | Anatomy ID | Expression score | Quality |
|---|---|---|---|
| secondary oocyte | CL:0000655 | 94.33 | gold quality |
| oocyte | CL:0000023 | 91.14 | gold quality |
| male germ line stem cell (sensu Vertebrata) in testis | CL:0000089 ∩ UBERON:0000473 | 88.23 | gold quality |
| calcaneal tendon | UBERON:0003701 | 81.45 | gold quality |
| primordial germ cell in gonad | CL:0000670 ∩ UBERON:0000991 | 78.98 | gold quality |
| tendon | UBERON:0000043 | 78.67 | gold quality |
| apex of heart | UBERON:0002098 | 78.09 | gold quality |
| adrenal tissue | UBERON:0018303 | 78.06 | gold quality |
| stromal cell of endometrium | CL:0002255 | 77.65 | gold quality |
| mucosa of stomach | UBERON:0001199 | 77.59 | gold quality |
| ganglionic eminence | UBERON:0004023 | 76.90 | gold quality |
| granulocyte | CL:0000094 | 76.83 | gold quality |
| cerebellar hemisphere | UBERON:0002245 | 76.82 | gold quality |
| cerebellar cortex | UBERON:0002129 | 76.76 | gold quality |
| right adrenal gland | UBERON:0001233 | 76.46 | gold quality |
| right hemisphere of cerebellum | UBERON:0014890 | 76.30 | gold quality |
| rectum | UBERON:0001052 | 76.14 | gold quality |
| right adrenal gland cortex | UBERON:0035827 | 76.14 | gold quality |
| cortical plate | UBERON:0005343 | 75.75 | gold quality |
| islet of Langerhans | UBERON:0000006 | 75.72 | gold quality |
| left adrenal gland cortex | UBERON:0035825 | 75.50 | gold quality |
| left adrenal gland | UBERON:0001234 | 75.42 | gold quality |
| ventricular zone | UBERON:0003053 | 75.21 | gold quality |
| cerebellum | UBERON:0002037 | 75.12 | gold quality |
| right coronary artery | UBERON:0001625 | 74.94 | gold quality |
| adrenal gland | UBERON:0002369 | 74.89 | gold quality |
| hindlimb stylopod muscle | UBERON:0004252 | 74.79 | gold quality |
| right ovary | UBERON:0002118 | 74.73 | gold quality |
| heart left ventricle | UBERON:0002084 | 74.57 | gold quality |
| descending thoracic aorta | UBERON:0002345 | 74.24 | gold quality |
Single-cell (SCXA)
Detected in 2 experiment(s), a significant marker in 0.
| Experiment | Marker? | Max mean expression |
|---|---|---|
| E-GEOD-124858 | no | 283.11 |
| E-ANND-3 | no | 3.44 |
Regulation
Is transcription factor: no
Upstream regulators (CollecTRI, top): STAT1
miRNA regulators (miRDB)
31 targeting ZNF155, top 30 by miRDB confidence (max_score; target_count = how many genes the miRNA targets in total — lower means more specific):
| miRNA | Max score | Avg score | miRNA target_count |
|---|---|---|---|
| HSA-MIR-4713-3P | 100.00 | 65.92 | 505 |
| HSA-MIR-4531 | 99.99 | 69.70 | 3181 |
| HSA-MIR-3692-3P | 99.98 | 70.27 | 2139 |
| HSA-MIR-5680 | 99.91 | 69.83 | 3421 |
| HSA-MIR-4492 | 99.87 | 68.25 | 3611 |
| HSA-MIR-5010-3P | 99.83 | 70.60 | 2357 |
| HSA-MIR-204-5P | 99.79 | 71.62 | 2439 |
| HSA-MIR-211-5P | 99.79 | 71.65 | 2440 |
| HSA-MIR-623 | 99.76 | 68.16 | 1170 |
| HSA-MIR-4755-5P | 99.71 | 70.34 | 2716 |
| HSA-MIR-5006-3P | 99.71 | 70.26 | 2728 |
| HSA-MIR-561-3P | 99.64 | 70.90 | 3647 |
| HSA-MIR-1290 | 99.59 | 69.90 | 2079 |
| HSA-MIR-3616-5P | 99.55 | 67.02 | 989 |
| HSA-MIR-573 | 99.55 | 67.44 | 955 |
| HSA-MIR-4498 | 99.47 | 67.42 | 2360 |
| HSA-MIR-4505 | 99.27 | 67.81 | 2678 |
| HSA-MIR-5787 | 99.22 | 67.86 | 2628 |
| HSA-MIR-491-5P | 99.13 | 65.98 | 1468 |
| HSA-MIR-219A-1-3P | 98.91 | 67.87 | 639 |
| HSA-MIR-224-3P | 98.91 | 68.42 | 1815 |
| HSA-MIR-522-3P | 98.91 | 68.56 | 1817 |
| HSA-MIR-3944-5P | 98.50 | 67.55 | 997 |
| HSA-MIR-3179 | 98.22 | 65.90 | 1445 |
| HSA-MIR-432-5P | 98.00 | 68.13 | 989 |
| HSA-MIR-4433A-3P | 97.75 | 62.82 | 1435 |
| HSA-MIR-495-5P | 97.62 | 68.28 | 682 |
| HSA-MIR-642B-5P | 96.37 | 67.26 | 745 |
| HSA-MIR-675-3P | 95.77 | 69.27 | 675 |
| HSA-MIR-4515 | 95.70 | 65.73 | 716 |
Cross-species orthologs
0 orthologs
Paralogs (51): WIZ (ENSG00000011451), ZNF416 (ENSG00000083817), MYNN (ENSG00000085274), PRDM4 (ENSG00000110851), PRDM2 (ENSG00000116731), ZBTB17 (ENSG00000116809), ZNF644 (ENSG00000122482), GZF1 (ENSG00000125812), ZNF426 (ENSG00000130818), ZNF287 (ENSG00000141040), ZNF697 (ENSG00000143067), ZNF687 (ENSG00000143373), ZNF214 (ENSG00000149050), ZNF547 (ENSG00000152433), ZNF776 (ENSG00000152443), ZNF230 (ENSG00000159882), ZNF222 (ENSG00000159885), ZNF233 (ENSG00000159915), ZNF333 (ENSG00000160961), ZNF319 (ENSG00000166188), ZNF592 (ENSG00000166716), ZNF646 (ENSG00000167395), ZNF507 (ENSG00000168813), ZNF768 (ENSG00000169957), ZNF417 (ENSG00000173480), ZNF408 (ENSG00000175213), ZBTB41 (ENSG00000177888), ZNF223 (ENSG00000178386), ZNF852 (ENSG00000178917), ZNF784 (ENSG00000179922), ZNF572 (ENSG00000180938), ZNF707 (ENSG00000181135), ZNF746 (ENSG00000181220), ZNF467 (ENSG00000181444), ZNF530 (ENSG00000183647), ZNF17 (ENSG00000186272), ZNF527 (ENSG00000189164), ZKSCAN7 (ENSG00000196345), ZNF34 (ENSG00000196378), ZNF774 (ENSG00000196391)
Protein
Protein identifiers
Zinc finger protein 155 — Q12901 (reviewed: Q12901)
All UniProt accessions (4): Q12901, K7EJJ6, K7ELA0, K7ENV6
UniProt curated annotations — full annotation on UniProt →
Function. May be involved in transcriptional regulation.
Subcellular location. Nucleus.
Similarity. Belongs to the krueppel C2H2-type zinc-finger protein family.
Isoforms (2)
| UniProt ID | Names | Canonical? |
|---|---|---|
| Q12901-1 | 1 | yes |
| Q12901-2 | 2 |
RefSeq proteins (5): NP_001247415, NP_001247416, NP_001247417, NP_003436, NP_932355* (*=MANE)
Domains & families (InterPro)
| ID | Name | Type |
|---|---|---|
| IPR001909 | KRAB | Domain |
| IPR013087 | Znf_C2H2_type | Domain |
| IPR036051 | KRAB_dom_sf | Homologous_superfamily |
| IPR036236 | Znf_C2H2_sf | Homologous_superfamily |
| IPR050752 | C2H2-ZF_domain | Family |
Pfam: PF00096, PF01352
UniProt features (26 total): zinc finger region 12, sequence conflict 6, sequence variant 5, chain 1, domain 1, splice variant 1
Structure
Experimental structures (PDB)
0 structures.
Predicted structure (AlphaFold)
| Model | pLDDT | Fraction very-high |
|---|---|---|
| AF-Q12901-F1 | 66.82 | 0.16 |
Function
Pathways and Gene Ontology
Reactome pathways
1 pathways
| ID | Pathway |
|---|---|
| R-HSA-212436 | Generic Transcription Pathway |
MSigDB gene sets: 50 (showing top):
CHEN_HOXA5_TARGETS_9HR_UP, GOMF_SEQUENCE_SPECIFIC_DNA_BINDING, GOBP_NEGATIVE_REGULATION_OF_TRANSCRIPTION_BY_RNA_POLYMERASE_II, GOBP_NEGATIVE_REGULATION_OF_NUCLEOBASE_CONTAINING_COMPOUND_METABOLIC_PROCESS, IL21_UP.V1_DN, OISHI_CHOLANGIOMA_STEM_CELL_LIKE_UP, GOMF_DNA_BINDING_TRANSCRIPTION_REPRESSOR_ACTIVITY, GOMF_TRANSCRIPTION_REGULATOR_ACTIVITY, CSHL1_TARGET_GENES, E2F5_TARGET_GENES, ZNF223_TARGET_GENES, ZNF30_TARGET_GENES, ZNF33A_TARGET_GENES, ZNF350_TARGET_GENES, ZNF592_TARGET_GENES
GO Biological Process (2): negative regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II (GO:0000122), regulation of DNA-templated transcription (GO:0006355)
GO Molecular Function (7): DNA-binding transcription repressor activity, RNA polymerase II-specific (GO:0001227), DNA-binding transcription factor activity (GO:0003700), zinc ion binding (GO:0008270), sequence-specific DNA binding (GO:0043565), DNA binding (GO:0003677), protein binding (GO:0005515), metal ion binding (GO:0046872)
GO Cellular Component (2): nucleoplasm (GO:0005654), nucleus (GO:0005634)
Reactome top-level categories
Rollup of top-1 pathways:
| Category | Pathways |
|---|---|
| RNA Polymerase II Transcription | 1 |
GO top-level categories
Rollup of top GO terms by namespace:
| Category | Terms |
|---|---|
| regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II | 1 |
| transcription by RNA polymerase II | 1 |
| negative regulation of DNA-templated transcription | 1 |
| DNA-templated transcription | 1 |
| regulation of gene expression | 1 |
| regulation of RNA biosynthetic process | 1 |
| negative regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II | 1 |
| RNA polymerase II transcription regulatory region sequence-specific DNA binding | 1 |
| DNA-binding transcription factor activity, RNA polymerase II-specific | 1 |
| DNA-binding transcription repressor activity | 1 |
| transcription cis-regulatory region binding | 1 |
| regulation of DNA-templated transcription | 1 |
| transcription regulator activity | 1 |
| transition metal ion binding | 1 |
| DNA binding | 1 |
| nucleic acid binding | 1 |
| binding | 1 |
| cation binding | 1 |
| nuclear lumen | 1 |
| cellular anatomical structure | 1 |
| intracellular membrane-bounded organelle | 1 |
Protein interactions and networks
STRING
284 interactions, top by confidence (×1000):
| Protein A | Protein B | Partner UniProt | Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| ZNF155 | FLACC1 | Q96Q35 | 431 |
| ZNF155 | ATP6AP1L | Q52LC2 | 418 |
| ZNF155 | FAM184A | Q8NB25 | 403 |
| ZNF155 | LRRC37A2 | A6NM11 | 390 |
| ZNF155 | PRAMEF6 | Q5VXH4 | 371 |
| ZNF155 | LRRC37A | A6NMS7 | 357 |
| ZNF155 | LRRC37A3 | O60309 | 351 |
| ZNF155 | PRAMEF8 | Q5VWM4 | 350 |
| ZNF155 | PRAMEF7 | Q5VXH5 | 349 |
| ZNF155 | NGRN | Q9NPE2 | 348 |
| ZNF155 | TARBP1 | Q13395 | 336 |
| ZNF155 | TRUB1 | Q8WWH5 | 323 |
| ZNF155 | PRAMEF4 | O60810 | 310 |
| ZNF155 | OSBP2 | Q969R2 | 305 |
| ZNF155 | A0A096LNW4 | A0A096LNW4 | 305 |
IntAct
14 interactions, top by confidence:
| A | B | Type | Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| CCNDBP1 | ZNF155 | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.560 |
| KRTAP10-6 | ZNF155 | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.560 |
| ZNF155 | MDFI | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.560 |
| GOLGA6L9 | ZNF155 | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.560 |
| PB2 | SEC15L3 | psi-mi:“MI:0914”(association) | 0.350 |
| ZNF155 | CCNDBP1 | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.000 |
| ZNF155 | KRTAP10-6 | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.000 |
| ZNF155 | MDFI | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.000 |
| ZNF155 | GOLGA6L9 | psi-mi:“MI:0915”(physical association) | 0.000 |
BioGRID (10): ZNF155 (Two-hybrid), KRTAP10-7 (Two-hybrid), KRTAP10-9 (Two-hybrid), KRTAP10-3 (Two-hybrid), ZNF155 (Two-hybrid), ZNF155 (Two-hybrid), ZNF155 (Two-hybrid), ZNF155 (Two-hybrid), ZNF155 (Affinity Capture-RNA), ZNF155 (Affinity Capture-MS)
ESM2 similar proteins: A0A1W2PQL4, A0JPL0, A2RRD8, A6NHJ4, A6NP11, B4DX44, O75346, O95780, P0CB33, P21506, P51508, P52738, Q0D2J5, Q0VGE8, Q12901, Q13360, Q14593, Q15973, Q2M218, Q2M3X9, Q2VY69, Q3SXZ3, Q5HY98, Q5RCJ2, Q5VIY5, Q6J6I6, Q7L2R6, Q86XU0, Q86Y25, Q8IW36, Q8IYN0, Q8IYX0, Q8N782, Q8N883, Q8N9Z0, Q8NDP4, Q95K49, Q969W8, Q96H40, Q96N58
Diamond homologs: A0A1W2PQL4, A0JNB1, A0JPL0, A6NK53, A6QLU5, A6QPT6, A7MBI1, A8MT65, A8MUV8, A8MWA4, B2RXC5, B4DU55, B4DX44, E9PYI1, O14628, O75346, P0CH99, P0CI00, P17014, P17030, P17032, P17098, P51786, P85977, Q02386, Q06730, Q06732, Q0VAW7, Q12901, Q13360, Q14586, Q14588, Q14590, Q16587, Q2M3X9, Q2VY69, Q32M78, Q3ZCX4, Q49AA0, Q4R6J4
SIGNOR signaling
0 interactions.
Disease & clinical
Clinical variants and AI predictions
ClinVar
86 variants total. Per-class counts are floors (≥ shown; pagination cap):
| Classification | Count (floor) |
|---|---|
| Pathogenic | 0 |
| Likely pathogenic | 0 |
| Uncertain significance | 77 |
| Likely benign | 4 |
| Benign | 0 |
Top pathogenic / likely-pathogenic (0)
SpliceAI
1053 predictions. Top by Δscore:
| Variant | Effect | Δscore |
|---|---|---|
| 19:43984241:GCCAA:G | donor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43984246:G:GG | donor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991543:TGTA:T | acceptor_loss | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991545:TA:T | acceptor_loss | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991546:A:AC | acceptor_loss | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991546:A:AG | acceptor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991546:AG:A | acceptor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991546:AGGAG:A | acceptor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991547:G:GA | acceptor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991547:GG:G | acceptor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991547:GGA:G | acceptor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991547:GGAGG:G | acceptor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991658:G:GT | donor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991671:G:GG | donor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991672:TGG:T | donor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991673:GGG:G | donor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43991675:G:GG | donor_gain | 1.0000 |
| 19:43984213:G:GT | donor_gain | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988457:A:AG | acceptor_gain | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988458:G:GG | acceptor_gain | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988458:GACT:G | acceptor_gain | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988532:G:GG | donor_gain | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988555:CAAGG:C | donor_loss | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988557:AGG:A | donor_loss | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988558:GGT:G | donor_loss | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988559:G:T | donor_loss | 0.9900 |
| 19:43988560:T:A | donor_loss | 0.9900 |
| 19:43991540:T:TA | acceptor_gain | 0.9900 |
| 19:43991543:T:A | acceptor_gain | 0.9900 |
| 19:43991545:TAGG:T | acceptor_gain | 0.9900 |
AlphaMissense
3598 scored. Top likely-pathogenic:
| Variant | Protein change | am_pathogenicity |
|---|---|---|
| 19:43996578:T:C | F241L | 0.997 |
| 19:43996580:C:A | F241L | 0.997 |
| 19:43996580:C:G | F241L | 0.997 |
| 19:43996662:T:C | F269L | 0.995 |
| 19:43996664:C:A | F269L | 0.995 |
| 19:43996664:C:G | F269L | 0.995 |
| 19:43997082:T:C | F409L | 0.993 |
| 19:43997084:T:A | F409L | 0.993 |
| 19:43997084:T:G | F409L | 0.993 |
| 19:43996494:T:C | F213L | 0.992 |
| 19:43996496:T:A | F213L | 0.992 |
| 19:43996496:T:G | F213L | 0.992 |
| 19:43996830:T:C | F325L | 0.991 |
| 19:43996832:T:A | F325L | 0.991 |
| 19:43996832:T:G | F325L | 0.991 |
| 19:43996681:T:C | L275P | 0.990 |
| 19:43996579:T:C | F241S | 0.989 |
| 19:43996746:T:C | F297L | 0.989 |
| 19:43996748:C:A | F297L | 0.989 |
| 19:43996748:C:G | F297L | 0.989 |
| 19:43996914:T:C | F353L | 0.989 |
| 19:43996916:T:A | F353L | 0.989 |
| 19:43996916:T:G | F353L | 0.989 |
| 19:43996998:T:C | F381L | 0.989 |
| 19:43997000:C:A | F381L | 0.989 |
| 19:43997000:C:G | F381L | 0.989 |
| 19:43996585:G:C | R243P | 0.988 |
| 19:43996513:T:C | L219P | 0.986 |
| 19:43996551:T:C | F232L | 0.986 |
| 19:43996553:C:A | F232L | 0.986 |
dbSNP variants (sampled 300 via entrez): RS1000220369 (19:43983419 G>T), RS1000918203 (19:43986454 T>G), RS1000938995 (19:43994676 C>A,T), RS1001378175 (19:43993009 C>A), RS1002188621 (19:43995579 T>C), RS1002953865 (19:43986321 T>G), RS1003368225 (19:43990776 C>G,T), RS1003547470 (19:43984750 G>A), RS1003600520 (19:43997641 T>A,C,G), RS1004036742 (19:43990147 T>C), RS1004086976 (19:43997619 T>C,G), RS1004284322 (19:43984327 G>A), RS1004709848 (19:43986004 GGAAA>G), RS1004907434 (19:43992175 A>G), RS1005156017 (19:43989081 A>G,T)
Disease associations
OMIM: gene MIM:604086 | disease phenotypes:
GenCC curated gene-disease
Mondo (0):
Orphanet (0):
HPO phenotypes
0 total (0 of 0 shown, HPO-id order):
GWAS associations
0 associations (top):
Drugs & pharmacology
Drug and pharmacology data
Is drug target: no
PharmGKB: 1 entry (VIP=true, CPIC=false)
CTD chemical–gene interactions
16 total (human), top 16 by PubMed support.
| Chemical | Actions (top 5) | PubMed papers |
|---|---|---|
| 3-((6-(2-methoxyphenyl)pyrimidin-4-yl)amino)phenyl)methane sulfonamide | decreases expression | 1 |
| TAK-243 | increases sumoylation | 1 |
| triphenyl phosphate | affects expression | 1 |
| ferrous chloride | decreases expression | 1 |
| aflatoxin B2 | increases methylation | 1 |
| CGP 52608 | affects binding, increases reaction | 1 |
| abrine | increases expression | 1 |
| Amphotericin B | decreases expression | 1 |
| Benzene | increases expression | 1 |
| Benzo(a)pyrene | decreases methylation | 1 |
| Cadmium | increases abundance, increases expression | 1 |
| Tretinoin | increases expression | 1 |
| Urethane | affects expression | 1 |
| Valproic Acid | decreases expression | 1 |
| Aflatoxin B1 | increases methylation | 1 |
| Cadmium Chloride | increases abundance, increases expression | 1 |
Cellosaurus cell lines
1 cell lines: 1 transformed cell line
First 10 cell lines (id-ordered, not curated):
| Cellosaurus | Name | Category | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|
| CVCL_XW09 | HEK293 eGFP-ZNF155 | Transformed cell line | Female |
Clinical trials (associated diseases)
0 trials via MONDO — disease-level, not drug-specific.
Related Atlas pages
No linked Atlas pages yet — the cross-entity mesh grows as the corpus expands.